The shooting of UnitedHealthcare CEO Brian Thompson in December 2024, where a 3D-printed gun was used, highlights the growing threat of these untraceable “ghost guns.”
These firearms, partially or completely made from commercially available 3D printers, are increasingly appearing in criminal activities, posing significant challenges for law enforcement and policymakers around the world. The US Supreme Court is currently reviewing the legality of federal restrictions on these weapons.
The first documented criminal case involving a 3D-printed gun occurred in the UK in 2013. Since then, their prevalence has increased rapidly. Between 2017 and 2021, US law enforcement confiscated nearly 38,000 suspected ghost guns, according to a 2024 US Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives report.
In 2021 alone, more than 19,000 were detected, a sharp increase from more than 8,500 in 2020. New York state saw a dramatic increase from 100 seizures in 2019 to 637 in 2022. Arrests are also increasing, with 108 globally in the first half of 2023, compared to a total of 66 in 2022.
North America leads in arrests related to 3D-printed guns (166 from 2013 to June 2023), followed by Europe (48) and Oceania (24). The US is expected to account for 36% of global arrests in 2023, followed by Canada (34%). The UK and Australia represent 10% and 8% respectively.
According to a report by The Conversation, these weapons have been linked to a variety of groups, including far-right extremists, ethnic-separatists, jihadists, left-wing anarchists, organized crime, and pro-democracy rebels. From 2019 to mid-2022, at least nine cases in Europe and Australia involved extremist, terrorist or paramilitary groups attempting or succeeding in producing 3D-printed firearms. An analysis of 165 cases from 2013 to mid-2024 shows that 15% were terrorism-related, with far-right groups being the most frequent users.
The lack of serial numbers on these homemade weapons makes them difficult to trace, which is a major attraction for criminals. Global regulatory approaches vary considerably.
Japan strictly prohibits unauthorized firearms production, including 3D-printed guns, with severe penalties. Canada effectively banned ghost guns in 2023, requiring a license for possession or manufacture. Australia criminalizes both making and possessing blueprints for 3D-printed firearms in some states, punishable by up to 21 years in prison. The European Union largely bans the making or possessing of homemade firearms, with varying laws and penalties, including criminalizing the possession of digital files. The UK recently updated its laws to specifically ban possessing, purchasing or producing parts for 3D-printed guns and is considering banning blueprint possession.
In the US, the Second Amendment and the First Amendment present unique regulatory challenges. While a federal license is required to sell 3D-printed firearms, their production or ownership for personal use is permitted, including 3D-printing the lower receiver. Current federal law, under Supreme Court review, requires 3D-printed gun kits to meet specific guidelines, including licensing, background checks and serial numbers. Converting semi-automatic firearms to automatic weapons using 3D-printed “Glock switches” is illegal and carries significant penalties.
State-level rules are also emerging. By November 2024, 15 US states had enacted regulations on ghost guns, generally requiring serial numbers, background checks, and reporting of 3D-printed firearm production. For example, New Jersey requires mandatory serial numbers and registration, while New York is considering criminalizing the manufacturing of 3D-printed firearms.
As 3D printing technology advances, the challenge of regulating these weapons and reducing the threat they pose to public safety will likely intensify.
